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From Grievance to Governance: The Structural Forces Driving the Far-Right’s Rise in Europe

Written by Marialena Polenaki (MS Social Research Methods)


Far-right populism has become one of the defining forces reshaping European politics, disrupting long-standing party systems and challenging the democratic and institutional frameworks that have underpinned the European Union (EU) since its inception. Once considered fringe movements, far-right parties have gained significant electoral traction, securing national leadership in countries like Italy and Hungary, influencing mainstream discourse in France and Germany, and expanding their presence in the European Parliament. The 2024 European elections underscored this shift, with far-right factions making historic gains, threatening to stall EU policymaking and fracture European unity.


This rise is neither accidental nor temporary; it is the product of structural failures that have left significant portions of European societies feeling alienated, economically insecure, and politically disillusioned. Economic stagnation, globalization’s uneven benefits, and austerity-driven welfare cuts have created a sense of abandonment among working-class and rural voters, many of whom perceive mainstream parties as detached from their struggles. At the same time, cultural anxieties, particularly those surrounding immigration, national identity, and the perceived imposition of progressive values, have fueled resentment, which far-right movements have effectively weaponized. The normalization of far-right rhetoric, both within Europe and beyond, suggests that these movements are not merely protest votes, but are becoming entrenched forces reshaping mainstream politics and governance.


This article examines the deep structural drivers behind the rise of far-right populism in Europe, situating them within broader historical and theoretical frameworks. By exploring the intersection of economic hardship, cultural anxiety, political distrust, and digital mobilization, it aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of why these movements have gained momentum. The analysis will also link recent political events to these structural dynamics, illustrating how crises have been strategically leveraged to bolster far-right narratives. Finally, the article will assess the broader implications of this shift, including the risks it poses to European unity, democratic stability, and geopolitical alliances. Addressing far-right populism requires more than reactive political strategies, it demands a critical reassessment of the underlying failures of liberal democracy and a proactive effort to restore trust, economic security, and institutional resilience before these movements become the dominant force shaping Europe’s political future.


Drivers of Far-Right Support Across Europe

Economic Dislocation and the Crisis of Globalization

Economic insecurity has been one of the most significant factors fueling the rise of the far-right. The promise of globalization and EU integration, once promoted as pathways to prosperity, has not been equally distributed across European societies. In many cases, industrial decline, job outsourcing, and automation have disproportionately impacted low-skilled workers and rural communities, creating a sense of abandonment by the political elite. The modernization losers hypothesis suggests that individuals and regions left behind by economic transformation are more likely to seek refuge in far-right parties, which offer simplistic yet emotionally compelling solutions to their plight.


The 2008 financial crisis and the subsequent austerity measures imposed by the EU deepened the economic divide, disproportionately harming southern European countries such as Greece, Spain, and Italy. These policies not only led to cuts in social welfare and rising unemployment, but also reinforced public perception that national governments were powerless in the face of EU-dictated economic constraints. The far-right capitalized on this frustration by positioning themselves as champions of economic sovereignty, promising to reclaim control over financial policies and prioritize national industries. Marine Le Pen’s National Rally in France and Giorgia Meloni’s Brothers of Italy have both incorporated economic nationalism into their platforms, advocating protectionist policies and government intervention to shield domestic businesses from global competition.


The energy crisis triggered by the Russia-Ukraine war further exacerbated economic insecurities, as rising fuel and electricity prices placed additional burdens on working- and middle-class families. This economic hardship provided an opening for far-right parties to challenge the EU’s sanctions on Russia, arguing that these policies harmed domestic economies more than they weakened Moscow. By tapping into public frustration, far-right leaders have been able to broaden their appeal beyond traditional nationalist voters, attracting those who feel economically disenfranchised by globalization and neoliberal policies.


Cultural Anxieties and the Politics of Identity

While economic factors play a crucial role, the rise of far-right populism in Europe is also deeply rooted in cultural anxieties, particularly those related to immigration, national identity, and the perceived erosion of traditional values. Far-right movements have successfully weaponized these concerns, constructing narratives in which immigration is framed as an existential threat to both economic stability and cultural cohesion.


The 2015 refugee crisis was a turning point in far-right political mobilization. The arrival of over a million asylum seekers, triggered widespread public debate over migration policy, border security, and the limits of multiculturalism. While many governments initially adopted humanitarian approaches, far-right parties capitalized on public fears, fabricating links of immigration to crime, terrorism, and economic burden. In Germany, the Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) surged in popularity by presenting itself as the only party willing to challenge Chancellor Angela Merkel’s open-door refugee policy. Similarly, Hungary’s Viktor Orbán framed the crisis as a civilizational struggle, arguing that European identity was “under siege” by non-European migrants.


The far-right’s success in exploiting cultural anxieties is not limited to immigration alone. Many of these movements have positioned themselves as defenders of traditional values against what they portray as an imposition of liberal, globalist, or progressive ideologies. This narrative has found particular resonance among conservative and religious voters who feel alienated by social changes related to gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and secularization. In Poland, the ruling Law and Justice Party (PiS) has actively promoted a nationalist-Christian identity, clashing with EU institutions over LGBTQ+ rights and judicial independence. This cultural dimension of far-right populism is particularly potent because it fosters an emotional attachment to political identity, making it more resistant to policy-based critique.


Media plays a crucial role in amplifying these cultural anxieties. Far-right parties have mastered digital communication, using social media to bypass traditional media gatekeepers and disseminate narratives that reinforce fears of cultural displacement. Misleading crime statistics, fabricated stories about migrant violence, and exaggerated claims of "white replacement" have proliferated on platforms like Facebook, Telegram, and X (formerly Twitter). A study by SWP Berlin (2024) found that far-right digital networks have been instrumental in normalizing xenophobic rhetoric, particularly in countries where mainstream media has attempted to push back against misinformation.


Political Distrust, Digital Propaganda, and the Rise of Far-Right Narratives

A profound distrust in political institutions has fueled the rise of far-right populism across Europe, as mainstream parties struggle to address economic and social grievances. Corruption scandals, bureaucratic inefficiency, and policy failures have allowed far-right leaders to position themselves as anti-establishment figures, vowing to "return power to the people." Cas Mudde’s populism framework highlights how these movements thrive on an “us versus them” narrative, portraying political elites and supranational entities like the EU as threats to national sovereignty. Parties such as Poland’s Law and Justice Party (PiS) and Hungary’s Fidesz have weaponized this sentiment to justify defiance of EU regulations, deepening institutional divides.


However, this erosion of trust has been accelerated by the far-right’s strategic use of digital propaganda and alternative media ecosystems, which bypass traditional media scrutiny and construct a parallel information environment that reinforces their narratives. Unlike past nationalist movements, contemporary far-right populism is deeply embedded in social media networks that amplify disinformation, outrage, and identity-driven grievances. A SWP Berlin (2024) study highlights how far-right groups leverage platforms like Facebook, Telegram, and X (formerly Twitter) to spread conspiracy theories, manipulate public discourse, and recruit disillusioned voters. Anti-immigration rhetoric, often based on misleading crime statistics, is particularly prevalent, further fueling societal polarization.


Far-right digital influence has also been strengthened by mainstream endorsements from high-profile tech figures. Elon Musk’s engagement with Germany’s Alternative für Deutschland (AfD), where he validated nationalist critiques of globalization and progressive values, illustrates how digital elites can lend legitimacy to far-right ideologies. This normalization of far-right discourse online is further exacerbated by social media algorithms that prioritize sensationalism and divisive content, allowing extremist narratives to spread faster than balanced political messaging. The result is the mainstreaming of previously fringe ideas, such as the “Great Replacement” theory, which falsely claims that European populations are being systematically replaced by non-European immigrants.


Disinformation campaigns linked to foreign influence operations, particularly from Russia, have further intensified the far-right’s digital reach. Investigations have revealed coordinated efforts to amplify anti-EU, anti-NATO, and nationalist content, aligning with Moscow’s broader strategy to destabilize European unity. Meanwhile, European governments have struggled to counter this trend. Despite regulations targeting online hate speech and disinformation, enforcement remains inconsistent, and tech platforms have been reluctant to take decisive action against extremist content. Far-right groups continue to adapt, using encrypted messaging apps and digital subcultures to maintain their influence and circumvent censorship.


This growing interplay between political distrust and digital propaganda is fundamentally reshaping European politics, enabling far-right movements to bypass institutional gatekeepers, shape public opinion in real time, and construct resilient online communities that sustain their influence beyond electoral cycles. If left unchecked, this digital mobilization could accelerate democratic erosion by further weakening institutional credibility, normalizing extremist ideologies, and making fact-based political debate increasingly difficult. The challenge for democratic forces is not only to counter misinformation but also to restore trust in governance before far-right digital networks become an inescapable force in shaping Europe’s political future.


Implications of Far-Right Populism in Europe

Policy Implications: A More Fragmented and Nationalist European Union

The growing strength of far-right parties in national governments and the European Parliament threatens to stall EU decision-making and disrupt integration efforts. While the EU has historically been shaped by compromise and multilateralism, the influx of nationalist and Eurosceptic forces presents a significant challenge to policy cohesion. As documented by SWP Berlin (2024), the fragmented but increasingly influential far-right movements within the EU have already begun to exert pressure on key issues such as migration, climate policy, and foreign relations.


One of the immediate consequences of far-right influence is the potential for policy gridlock at the European level. Far-right parties often prioritize national sovereignty over collective EU decision-making, making it difficult to achieve consensus on issues that require coordinated action. Climate policies, for example, have faced increasing resistance from nationalist parties that frame environmental regulations as harmful to national economies. Similarly, EU migration policy is likely to become even more contentious, as far-right parties push for stricter border controls, reduced asylum quotas, and national-level migration policies that undermine the bloc’s collective framework.


The risk of EU disintegration is also heightened by the far-right’s success. Although Brexit remains an outlier, growing Eurosceptic sentiment could lead to deeper fractures within the union. Countries like Hungary and Poland, where nationalist governments have repeatedly clashed with Brussels over rule-of-law issues, may become emboldened in their defiance of EU regulations, setting precedents for other member states. If far-right parties gain a critical mass in the European Parliament, they could significantly weaken the EU’s ability to enforce its own legal framework, effectively undermining the union from within.


Additionally, the far-right’s economic policies could disrupt European financial stability. Many far-right parties advocate protectionist measures, including trade restrictions and state intervention in markets, which contradict the EU’s liberal economic model. A shift towards economic nationalism across multiple member states could weaken the single market and increase the risk of economic fragmentation. This, in turn, would reduce Europe’s global economic competitiveness, making it more vulnerable to external economic pressures from other global players.


Social and Cultural Implications: Polarization, Xenophobia, and Democratic Backsliding

The rise of far-right populism has deepened societal divisions across Europe, normalizing xenophobic and exclusionary rhetoric, whilst eroding the foundations of liberal democracy. As these movements gain mainstream acceptance, they are reshaping public discourse in ways that further marginalize minority communities, erode trust in democratic institutions, and embolden extremist groups.


One of the most concerning social consequences is the rise in polarization. Far-right parties thrive on divisive politics, portraying society as a battlefield between "the people" and "the corrupt elite," or between "natives" and "outsiders". This polarization extends beyond political discourse into everyday life, leading to increased hostility between different social groups. According to IBANET (2024), the normalization of far-right rhetoric has contributed to a rise in hate crimes and political violence across Europe, particularly targeting immigrant communities, LGBTQ+ individuals, and progressive activists.


At the same time, far-right success has led to a more restrictive and exclusionary approach to migration and minority rights. In countries where far-right parties have gained influence, immigration policies have become significantly more stringent, with governments implementing border closures, asylum restrictions, and aggressive deportation campaigns. The far-right’s ability to set the agenda on immigration has forced even centrist and left-wing parties to adopt tougher stances on the issue, shifting the entire political spectrum towards exclusionary policies.


Beyond migration, the far-right has increasingly targeted civil liberties and press freedoms. Hungary and Poland have already demonstrated how nationalist governments can erode democratic norms from within, using legal and institutional mechanisms to weaken judicial independence, restrict media access, and limit opposition voices. If similar trends spread to other European countries, the long-term consequences for democracy could be profound. IIEA (2024) warns that the weakening of democratic institutions in just a few EU member states could have a cascading effect, encouraging other governments to follow suit and making it more difficult for the EU to enforce democratic standards.


Geopolitical Implications: A Weakened Europe in a Shifting Global Order

The rise of the far-right is also reshaping Europe’s role in global politics, potentially undermining its ability to act as a unified force in international affairs. As nationalist parties prioritize domestic concerns over multilateral cooperation, Europe’s geopolitical cohesion is at risk, weakening its influence in an increasingly multipolar world.


One of the most immediate concerns is the impact on NATO and transatlantic relations. Many far-right parties are skeptical of military alliances and advocate for a reduction in European defense commitments. This trend has been reinforced by the re-election of Donald Trump in the United States, whose nationalist foreign policy approach aligns with many European far-right movements. Trump’s second term has emboldened nationalist leaders across the continent, reinforcing their skepticism towards international alliances and multilateral agreements.


Russia, in particular, stands to benefit from the fragmentation of European unity. Many far-right parties have adopted pro-Russian stances, criticizing EU sanctions on Moscow and advocating for a more conciliatory approach to Vladimir Putin. This has already been evident in Hungary, where Viktor Orbán has resisted EU efforts to isolate Russia following its invasion of Ukraine. If more nationalist leaders follow suit, Europe’s ability to present a united front against Russian aggression could be severely weakened.


Another major geopolitical risk is the shift in global economic alliances. As far-right parties push for economic nationalism, their policies could reduce Europe’s engagement with global trade agreements, limiting its ability to compete with economic powerhouses like China and the United States. Protectionist policies may lead to retaliatory measures from major trading partners, further destabilizing the European economy.


Implications for Democratic Governance: The Normalization of Authoritarian Tactics

Perhaps the most concerning consequence of far-right populism is its erosion of democratic norms. While these parties often come to power through democratic means, their governance strategies frequently undermine democratic institutions, consolidating executive power and weakening checks and balances.


In Hungary and Poland, we have already seen how far-right governments can systematically dismantle democratic safeguards by undermining judicial independence, controlling state media, and restricting civil society organizations. If these tactics spread to more European countries, the EU’s ability to function as a union of democratic states could be compromised.


Moreover, the increasing use of digital propaganda and disinformation by far-right movements poses a major challenge to democratic resilience. Social media has become a battleground where far-right narratives are amplified, often through coordinated misinformation campaigns. The involvement of influential tech leaders like Elon Musk, who recently engaged with Germany’s AfD, signals a worrying trend where digital platforms are being weaponized to mainstream extremist ideologies.


If left unchecked, these trends could lead to a slow but steady backsliding of democracy across Europe, where competitive authoritarianism replaces liberal democracy. The normalization of far-right governance would not only weaken domestic institutions but also embolden anti-democratic actors worldwide, reinforcing a global trend towards illiberalism.


Conclusion and Recommendations: Confronting the Rise of Far-Right Populism

The growing influence of far-right populism across Europe represents one of the most significant political shifts of the 21st century, challenging democratic norms, reshaping policy agendas, and redefining the ideological landscape of the European Union. This movement is not merely a temporary reaction to political dissatisfaction; it is a structural transformation driven by deep-seated grievances, namely economic, cultural, and political, that mainstream parties have consistently failed to address.


A Call to Action: Policy Recommendations to Counter Far-Right Populism

Addressing the root causes of far-right populism requires a comprehensive, multifaceted strategy that tackles economic grievances, restores faith in democratic institutions, promotes inclusive cultural policies, and strengthens European unity. Mainstream parties and policymakers must shift from a reactive approach, merely containing the far-right, to a proactive strategy that directly addresses the socioeconomic conditions and political frustrations that fuel its rise.


      I.          Economic Reforms: Restoring Economic Security and Reducing Inequality

Economic insecurity has been one of the primary drivers of far-right support, particularly among working-class and rural voters who feel left behind by globalization and neoliberal policies. Addressing these concerns requires bold economic reforms that prioritize inclusive growth, fair wages, and social protections.


  • Investment in Deindustrialized and Rural Regions: Governments must prioritize regional development programs, ensuring that economic growth benefits all areas, not just urban centers. Investments in infrastructure, education, and job creation in historically neglected regions will help bridge the gap between economic "winners" and "losers" of globalization.

  • Strengthening Labor Rights and Social Safety Nets: The erosion of workers’ rights and the gig economy’s expansion have contributed to economic precarity. Implementing stronger labor protections, minimum wage laws, and social security measures will reduce economic insecurity and weaken far-right narratives about the failures of the welfare state.

  • A More Equitable Tax System: Progressive taxation policies can help reduce income inequality and fund social programs that benefit working-class and lower-middle-class citizens, addressing a key grievance that far-right parties have exploited.


    II.         Political Reforms: Restoring Public Trust in Democracy

A core appeal of far-right populism is its anti-establishment rhetoric, which thrives on public distrust in mainstream parties and institutions. Rebuilding confidence in democracy requires structural reforms that enhance government accountability, transparency, and citizen participation.



 III.         Cultural Policies: Promoting Social Cohesion and Inclusion

Far-right populism thrives on divisive identity politics, often portraying immigrants, minorities, and progressive movements as existential threats to national identity. Countering these narratives requires a renewed commitment to social cohesion, integration, and multiculturalism.


  • Balanced and Effective Immigration Policies: Immigration policies must be humane and fact-based, countering the xenophobic rhetoric that far-right parties promote. Successful integration programs, access to language education, and employment support for migrants can address fears about social and economic competition.

  • Investing in Education and Media Literacy: Expanding educational programs that promote critical thinking, historical awareness, and media literacy will help citizens identify misinformation and resist far-right propaganda. Civic education should be strengthened to instill democratic values from an early age.

  • Countering Far-Right Narratives in Mainstream Discourse: Mainstream political parties must take a stronger stance against the normalization of far-right rhetoric, refusing to adopt its talking points in an attempt to win votes. Appeasement strategies have historically failed and have only strengthened the far-right.


  IV.         Strengthening European Unity and Global Alliances

The far-right’s rise threatens European cohesion, making it essential for pro-democratic forces to reinforce EU unity and global partnerships.


Final Thoughts: The Urgency of Action

Far-right populism is not a passing political trend; it is a structural phenomenon that reflects deep societal tensions and a failure of mainstream politics to address them. If left unchallenged, it has the potential to erode democracy, weaken European integration, and destabilize international alliances. The challenge for pro-democratic forces is clear: either confront the root causes of far-right populism through structural reforms, or risk allowing it to define Europe’s political future for years to come. The time for complacency has long passed; what is needed now is decisive action.

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